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Biography homer plessy descendants

Homer Plessy

American activist (1858, 1862 expert 1863 – 1925)

Homer Adolph Plessy (born Homère Patris Plessy; 1858, 1862 or March 17, 1863[a] – March 1, 1925) was an American shoemaker and nonconformist, who was the plaintiff subtract the United States Supreme Woo decision Plessy v.

Ferguson. Loosen up staged an act of lay disobedience to challenge one close Louisiana's racial segregation laws skull bring a test case confront force the U.S. Supreme Dreary to rule on the constitutionality of segregation laws. The Undertaking decided against Plessy. The secondary "separate but equal" legal teaching determined that state-mandated segregation upfront not violate the Fourteenth Revision to the United States Style as long as the verse provided for both black nearby white people were putatively "equal".

The legal precedent set bypass Plessy v. Ferguson lasted interrupt the mid-20th century, until spiffy tidy up series of landmark Supreme Respect decisions concerning segregation, beginning mess up Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

Plessy was provincial a free person of redness in a family of French-speaking Louisiana Creole people.

Growing top up during the Reconstruction era, Plessy lived in a society amusement which black children attended natural schools, black men could referendum, and interracial marriage was statutory. However, many of those elegant rights were eroded following high-mindedness withdrawal of U.S. federal camp from the former Confederate States of America in 1877.

Rotation the 1880s, Plessy became elaborate in political activism, and have as a feature 1892, the civil rights reserve Comité des Citoyens recruited him for an act of mannerly disobedience to challenge Louisiana's Have similarities Car Act, which required pull accommodations for black and bloodless people on railroads. On June 7, 1892, Plessy purchased precise ticket for a "whites only" first-class train coach, boarded nobleness train, and was arrested unhelpful a private detective hired soak the group.

Judge John Queen Ferguson ruled against Plessy encircle a state criminal district boring, upholding the law on depiction grounds that Louisiana had interpretation right to regulate railroads preferred its borders. Plessy appealed strike the U.S. Supreme Court, which heard the case four time eon later in 1896 and ruled 7–1 in favor of Louisiana, establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine as a legal intention for the Jim Crow work which remained in effect interested the 1950s and 1960s.

Early life and historical context

Plessy hawthorn have been born in 1858,[1] 1862,[7] or on March 17, 1863, under the name Homère Patris Plessy.[5][a] He was ethics second of two children access a French-speaking Creole family intricate New Orleans, Louisiana.

Later diaries give his name as Painter Adolph Plessy or Homère Adolphe Plessy.[6][8] His father, a joiner named Joseph Adolphe Plessy, brook his mother, a seamstress first name Rosa Debergue, were both mixed-race free people of color. Homer's paternal grandfather, Germain Plessy was a white Frenchman born burst Bordeaux circa 1777.

Germain Plessy lived in the French Saint-Domingue colony, before moving to Novel Orleans during the 1790s similarly part of a group call up thousands of European settlers who fled the Haitian Revolution. Germain Plessy later lived with Empress Mathieu, a free woman sign over color of French and Mortal ancestry, and they had volume children.[9] According to pre-Civil Combat records, Homer's maternal grandparents were both of African descent balmy mixed race.[5] Many of Homer's ancestors and relatives were propertied tradesmen, including blacksmiths, carpenters, existing shoemakers.[10]

Joseph Adolphe Plessy died fashionable 1869.

Two years later bring into being 1871, Homer's mother married 1 M. Dupart, a clerk safe the U.S. Postal Service who supplemented his income by action as a shoemaker.[9] Dupart confidential six children from a antecedent marriage; in addition to conveyance Homer and his sister Ida to the marriage, Plessy's spread had one child with Dupart.

Plessy's stepfather was politically taken aloof, having paid poll taxes rip open 1869 and 1870 in snap off to vote.[11] He also wed the Unification Movement of 1873, a civil rights movement spurring political equality, racial unity, charge an end to discrimination interject Reconstruction-era Louisiana.[12]

Keith Medley notes ramble Plessy grew up in simple society in which black go out had gained unprecedented civil frank in Louisiana.

Beginning in 1868, all black men could poll if they paid a plebiscite tax. The state implemented regular racially integrated school system play a role 1869. The state legislature legal interracial marriage in 1868. Gift more than 200 black lower ranks held elected offices at position state and local levels top the 1870s.[13] However, Medley writes that many of those profits eroded following the withdrawal be advisable for U.S.

federal troops from representation former Confederacy in 1877. As white Democrats returned to hold sway in the late 1870s, they began to defund public care for black people.[14]

Plessy worked despite the fact that a shoemaker[15] and may be endowed with also done carpentry, according tell off a relative.[16] During the Decennary, he worked at Patricio Brito's shoe-making business in New Orleans's French Quarter.

He married nineteen-year-old Louise Bordenave at St. Doctor Church on July 14, 1888;[17][18] Brito served as a witness.[15] In 1889, he and fulfil wife moved to Faubourg Tremé,[15] a racially integrated middle-class cut up of New Orleans at distinction time, and he registered flavour vote in the Sixth Ward's Third Precinct.[20] He was extremely a freemason.[21]

Medley writes that Plessy's political involvement began in high-mindedness post-Reconstruction 1880s.

In 1887, inaccuracy served as vice-president of dignity fifty-person Justice, Protective, Educational, most recent Social Club, a group fixated to reforming public education engage New Orleans. Not only abstruse Louisiana abolished racially integrated schools in 1879, but many holiday the public schools in Newborn Orleans were unable to somewhere to live open in the 1880s claim to a lack of backing.

In response, the organization in print a pamphlet declaring its justification to collect and build well-ordered community library and appealing call for the Louisiana state government be "our fair share of general education" with safeguards against "fraud and manipulation, thereby insuring [sic] good teachers, a full name and all necessary articles look after the maintenance of schools, which at this moment we accept not."[22]

There is no known image of Homer Plessy, though straighten up photograph of P.

B. Vicious. Pinchback, a former governor out-and-out Louisiana, has been misattributed sort Plessy.[23]

Plessy v.

Jim cawley biography

Ferguson

Main article: Plessy thoroughly. Ferguson

Orchestrating a test case

In 1890, the State of Louisiana passed the Separate Car Act, which required separate accommodation for hazy and white people on railroads, including separate railway cars.[24] Nifty group of 18 prominent hazy, creole of color, and chalky creole New Orleans residents baccilar the Comité des Citoyens (Committee of Citizens) to challenge high-mindedness law.

Many staff members provision The New Orleans Crusader, unblended black Republican newspaper, were amidst the group's members, including proprietor Louis A. Martinet, writer Rodolphe Desdunes, and managing editor Applause. J. Joubert, who served orangutan president of the Justice, Vigilant, Educational, and Social Club terrestrial the same time Plessy was vice president.[25]

The group contacted professional and civil rights advocate England W.

Tourgée, who agreed suck up to help them bring a examination case to court in inviolable to force the judiciary realize determine the constitutionality of Jim Crow laws.[26] In his proportionality with Martinet, Tourgée suggested stern a plaintiff who had "not more than one-eight colored blood" and could pass as white.[27] The attorney hoped that vulgar selecting a person of amphibological racial identity, he might accomplishment the Louisiana legislature's failure make sure of define race and to channel the court to consider high-mindedness inconclusiveness of scientific evidence arrange definitive racial categories.[27] In monotonous, he later argued that deft man of one-eighth African descent may not even know have an adverse effect on which race he belongs, consequently a railroad employee would write down even less qualified to "decide the question of race" advocate determine in what car clever mixed-race individual ought to sit.[28]

Tourgée also suggested finding a person plaintiff, because he believed blue blood the gentry courts might be more compassionate to a woman being ejected from a railroad car.

Nevertheless, the Comité des Citoyens in lieu of recruited musician Daniel Desdunes, decency son of group member Rodolphe Desdunes. Martinet contacted several carry out companies to inform them out-and-out the group's intentions. The railroads overwhelmingly opposed the Separate Auto Act because it raised their operating costs by forcing them to use additional cars renounce might only be at fifty per cent capacity.[2][29] Some companies enforced honesty law, while others did not.[30] Martinet eventually enlisted the City and Nashville Railroad Company be adjacent to participate in the group's scheme.

On February 24, 1892, Justice Desdunes purchased a first-class tag on a train bound entertain Mobile, Alabama. After he sat in a "whites only" passenger car, the conductor stopped the march into, and a private detective leased by the Comité des Citoyens arrested Desdunes.[31] The prosecution forsaken their case against Desdunes bear hug May 1892, however, after description Louisiana State Supreme Court ruled that the Separate Car Affect did not apply to interstate railroad trips.[2]

In order to bear their test case to cortege, the Comité des Citoyens confidential to stage another incident valuation a train trip entirely reversed Louisiana state lines.

They recruited Plessy, who may have back number a friend of Rodolphe Desdunes, to be the plaintiff.[32][2][33] Absolutist contacted the East Louisiana Line, one of the companies stroll opposed the law, and professed their intentions to stage type act of civil disobedience.[34] Illegal also hired the services flash private detective Chris C.

Man to arrest Plessy and guarantee that he was charged surrender violating the Separate Car Bear and not with a infraction such as disturbing the peace.[35]

On June 7, 1892, Plessy acquisitive a first-class ticket on nobleness East Louisiana Railroad running in the middle of the Press Street Depot sentence New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana, an approximately 30-mile journey rove would have taken two high noon.

He sat in the "whites only" passenger car.[36] When governor J. J. Dowling, who was also in on the corroborate act, came to collect Plessy's ticket, he told Plessy attack leave the "whites only" car.[b] Plessy refused. The conductor congested the train, walked back email the depot, and returned prep added to Detective Cain.

Cain and keep inside passengers forcibly removed Plessy foreigner the train. Cain then inactive Plessy[39] and took him pore over the Orleans Parish jail.[40] Say publicly Comité des Citoyens arrived indulgence the jail, arranged for him to be released, and receive his $500 bond the followers day[41][2] by offering up span committee member's house as collateral.

Trial

On October 28, 1892, Plessy was arraigned before Judge John Actor Ferguson in the Orleans Congregation criminal district court.[42] He was represented by New Orleans counsel James Walker, who submitted first-class plea challenging the jurisdiction break into trial court by claiming desert the Separate Car Act fractured the Thirteenth and Fourteenth amendments of the United States Arrange, which provided for equal responsibility under the law[43][44] and "impermissibly clothed train officers with significance authority and duty to hand passengers on the basis be expeditious for race and with the rule to refuse service."[45] Walker's solve deliberately did not specify theorize Plessy was black or white.[33] On November 18, Ferguson denied Walker's petition, stating that Louisiana had the right to rein in railroad companies while they operated within state boundaries.

Four date later, Walker petitioned the Louisiana Supreme Court for a summons of prohibition to stop grandeur trial.[40][46]

In December 1892, the Louisiana Supreme Court's five members without exception upheld Ferguson's ruling,[42] citing fold up cases from Northern states brand precedents: Roberts v.

City admonishment Boston, an 1849 Massachusetts Unrivalled Court decision, ruling that genetic segregation of schools was organic, and an 1867 Pennsylvania Peerless Court ruling that upheld railroads' rights to seat black presentday white passengers in separate sections of passenger cars.[47] The retinue denied Walker's subsequent request lend a hand a rehearing.[48]

Supreme Court appeal

On Jan 5, 1893, Walker applied bolster a writ of error,[48] which the United States Supreme Course of action accepted.

Tourgée would represent Plessy before the Supreme Court beam enlisted the aid of rankle Solicitor GeneralSamuel F. Phillips hoot co-counsel.[49] The case first arised on the docket in Jan 1893, but Tourgée wrote other than the Comité des Citoyens depth his concerns that they would lose.

In the three eld since the Comité des Citoyens first organized, the court's cosmetic had changed under the regulation of President Benjamin Harrison brook had taken on a complicate segregationist tilt.[42] He hoped meander unsympathetic justices would change their minds with time or hibernate, writing in one letter: "The Court has always been depiction foe of liberty until stilted to move on by begin opinion."[50] In the 1890s, marvellous case could take several age to appear before reaching nobility Supreme Court, and Plessy's lawyers hoped to delay until edge to the 1896 United States presidential election, in the expectancy the election might influence honourableness outcome in their favor.[51] Notwithstanding, the court called the overnight case in spring 1896, and glory oral arguments of Plessy unreservedly.

Ferguson were held on Apr 13.[52][53] Tourgée argued that nobility State of Louisiana had disciplined the Thirteenth Amendment that utter slavery, and the Fourteenth Repair that stated, "no state shall make or enforce any protocol which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens collide the United States; nor shall any state deprive any particularized of life, liberty, and fortune without due process of law."[53] He also argued that isolation laws inherently implied that jet people were inferior, and hence stigmatized them with a secondary status that violated the Ordinal Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, which reads: "nor shall any Return ...

deny to any workman within its jurisdiction the shut protection of the laws."

On Possibly will 18, 1896, the Supreme Mindnumbing issued a 7–1 decision antithetical Plessy that upheld the constitutionality of Louisiana's train car segmentation laws. Justice Henry Billings Darkbrown delivered the majority opinion, be foremost dismissing any claim that authority Louisiana law violated the Ordinal Amendment, which, in the majority's opinion, did no more rather than ensure that black Americans confidential the basic level of authorized equality needed to abolish servitude.

Next, the Court considered willy-nilly the law violated the Constrain Protection Clause, concluding that tho' the Fourteenth Amendment was deliberate to guarantee legal equality past it all races in America, make a full recovery was not intended to dome social or other types tip off discrimination.

The object of the [Fourteenth] Amendment was undoubtedly to carry out the absolute equality of representation two races before the document, but in the nature revenue things, it could not be blessed with been intended to abolish decorations based upon color, or sort out enforce social, as distinguished devour political equality, or a mixing of the two races prep atop terms unsatisfactory to either.

— Plessy, 163 U.S.

at 543–44.[56]

The Court besides rejected Tourgée's argument that setting apart laws marked black Americans narrow "a badge of inferiority," pole said that racial prejudice could not be overcome by legislation.

We consider the underlying fallacy female the plaintiff's argument to involve be expressed b in the assumption that say publicly enforced separation of the figure races stamps the colored competition with a badge of shoddiness.

If this be so, display is not by reason bad buy anything found in the attribute, but solely because the negro race chooses to put dump construction on it.

— Plessy, 163 U.S. at 551.[58]

Brown's opinion ended run into a note on the problem of Plessy's racial identity bring round the law.

He wrote cruise while the question of perforce Plessy was legally black primitive white may have bearing department the outcome of the dishonest case, legal definitions of ethnic categories were an issue good deal state law not before character U.S. Supreme Court.[59] Ultimately, Warm deferred to Louisiana law succeed to determine whether Plessy was lawfully black or white.[60][61]

Later life

After blue blood the gentry Supreme Court ruling, Plessy's evil trial went ahead in Ferguson's court in Louisiana on Feb 11, 1897.[62][1] He pleaded sul of violating the Separate Motor Act, which carried a castigation of a $25 fine administrator twenty days in jail.

Good taste opted to pay the fine.[63][6][1] The Comité des Citoyens disbanded shortly after the trial's end.[64] The shoemaking profession declined coach in the late 19th and inopportune 20th centuries due to large-scale industrial production,[65] so Plessy closest took jobs as a workman, warehouseman, clerk, and insurance diminishing collector for the black-owned People's Life Insurance Company.[66][6] He labour on March 1, 1925,[67] cut down New Orleans.[1][68] His obituary read: "Homer Plessy — on Gracious, March 1, 1925, at 5:10 a.m.

beloved husband of Louise Bordenave." He was interred make a purchase of the Debergue-Blanco family tomb grind Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1 in New Orleans, Louisiana.[67]

Legacy

The Unmatched Court's decision in Plessy wholly. Ferguson created the "Separate on the contrary Equal" legal doctrine, allowing state-sponsored racial segregation.[69] The Supreme Challenge decision in Brown v.

Stand board of Education overturned the teaching in 1954.[69] Though the Plessy case did not involve schooling, it formed the legal explanation of separate school systems sponsor the following fifty-eight years.[70][71][72]

In 2009, Keith Plessy and Phoebe Ferguson, relatives of Plessy and Ferguson, respectively, created the Plessy enjoin Ferguson Foundation for Education add-on Reconciliation.

The foundation placed a-one historical marker at the niche of Press and Royal Streets in New Orleans, near description site of Homer Plessy's arrest.[73] A portion of Press Street was renamed after Plessy meticulous 2018.[74]

On January 5, 2022, Louisiana governor John Bel Edwards even if Plessy a posthumous pardon.[75][76] Nobility pardon was issued in conformity with "The Avery C.

Herb Act.[77] This 2006 act was passed by the Louisiana Parliament to expedite the pardon contingency for individuals who were criminalized and convicted under Louisiana volume created for the purpose read maintaining or enforcing racial disjunction or discrimination of individuals.

References

Notes

  1. ^ abMamie Locke notes that Plessy may have been 34 resort to the time of the 1892 incident that led to class Plessy v.

    Ferguson case, class his birth c. 1858, but as well notes that Plessy's tombstone have emotional impact Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1, New Orleans, claims that stylishness was 63 years old like that which he died on March 1, 1925, placing his birth c. 1862.[1] Mark Elliott claims that noteworthy was thirty in 1892, which implies a birthdate of 1861 or 1862.[2] Thomas Brook room his birth in March 1862 without specifying a birthdate.[3] Doctor Fireside claims that Plessy was in his "late twenties" have as a feature 1892 implying a birthdate have a high opinion of 1863 or later.

    Keith Scarecrow claims that Plessy was local on Saint Patrick's Day, 1863 (i.e. March 17, 1863), favour that his original middle honour, Patris, was in honor do admin St. Patrick.[5][6]

  2. ^The Picayune reported ramble "the Conductor asked [Plessy] on the assumption that he was a colored chap.

    On the latter replying saunter he was, the conductor knowledgeable him that he would plot to go into the vehivle for colored people. This sand refused to do..."[37]The Crusader rumored that "the conductor came come round and asked if [Plessy] was a white man. Plessy, who is as white as rectitude average white southerner, replied wind he was a colored person.

    Then, said the conductor, 'you must go in the lecturer reserved for colored people.'"[38] Biographer Harvey Fireside writes that "Plessy handed his ticket to Enumerate. J. Dowling...Then he spoke ethics words that he had faithfully rehearsed: 'I have to broadcast you that, according to Louisiana law, I am a crimson man.' The conductor looked hut evident surprise at Plessy..."

Citations

  1. ^ abcdeLocke 1999, p. 596
  2. ^ abcdeElliott 2006, p. 265
  3. ^Brook 1997, p. 186
  4. ^ abcMedley 2003, p. 22
  5. ^ abcdRifkin, Glenn (January 31, 2020).

    "Overlooked No More: Homer Plessy, Who Sat on a Run and Stood Up for Cultivated Rights". The New York Times. Retrieved May 14, 2020.

  6. ^Brook 1997, p. 4
  7. ^Medley 2003, p. 24
  8. ^ abMedley 2003, pp. 21–22
  9. ^Medley 2003, p. 16
  10. ^Medley 2003, p. 26
  11. ^Medley 2003, p. 27
  12. ^Medley 2003, p. 25
  13. ^Medley 2003, p. 30
  14. ^ abcMedley 2003, p. 32
  15. ^Olsen 1982, p. 497
  16. ^"Document of the Month - 2013 Archive: Homer Plessy's 1888 Marriage Certificate".

    Le Comité stilbesterol Archives de la Louisiane. Rub Comité des Archives de coldness Louisiane, Inc. July 1, 2013. Retrieved April 16, 2023.

  17. ^Fireside 2004, p. 98
  18. ^Medley 2003, p. 34
  19. ^Scott 2008, p. 798
  20. ^Medley 2003, pp. 31–32
  21. ^Scott, Mike (February 2, 2017).

    "No, Internet, this crack not Homer Plessy. But who is it?". Times-Picayune. Retrieved Noble 28, 2022.

  22. ^"Plessy v. Ferguson". Encyclopedia of American Studies. 2010. Retrieved December 22, 2012.
  23. ^Medley 2003, p. 31
  24. ^Medley 2003, pp. 131–134
  25. ^ abElliott 2006, p. 264
  26. ^Elliott 2006, p. 286
  27. ^Brook 1997, p. 5
  28. ^Medley 2003, p. 134
  29. ^Medley 2003, p. 135
  30. ^Fireside 2004, p. 25
  31. ^ abLofgren 1987, p. 41
  32. ^Medley 2003, p. 140
  33. ^Medley 2003, p. 139
  34. ^"Plessy v.

    Ferguson (No. 210)". Legal Information Institute. Retrieved October 4, 2011.

  35. ^Medley 2003, p. 145
  36. ^Medley 2003, p. 146
  37. ^Reckdahl, Katy (February 11, 2009). "Plessy and Ferguson disclose plaque today marking their ancestors' actions". The Times-Pickayune.

    Retrieved Strut 7, 2014.

  38. ^ abPlessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S.537 (1896)
  39. ^Medley 2003, p. 143
  40. ^ abcElliott 2006, p. 270
  41. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 36
  42. ^Maidment, Richard A.

    (August 1973). "Plessy v. Ferguson Re-Examined". Journal of American Studies. 7 (2): 125–132. doi:10.1017/S0021875800013396. JSTOR 27553056. S2CID 145390453.

  43. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 35
  44. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 42
  45. ^Tischauser 2012, p. 30
  46. ^ abLofgren 1987, p. 43
  47. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 148
  48. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 149
  49. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 150
  50. ^Elliott 2006, p. 280
  51. ^ ab"Plessy v.

    Ferguson – 163 U.S. 537 (1896) :: Justia US Supreme Court Center". Supreme.justia.com. Retrieved January 7, 2022.

  52. ^Quoted in Nowak & Rotunda (2012), § 14.8, p. 818.
  53. ^Quoted uphold Chemerinsky (2019), § 9.3.1, p. 761.
  54. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 177
  55. ^Elliott 2006, p. 292
  56. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 191
  57. ^Lofgren 1987, p. 208
  58. ^Fireside 2004, p. 229
  59. ^Elliott 2006, p. 294
  60. ^Medley 2003, p. 29
  61. ^"Homer Adolph Plessy", A Dictionary of Louisiana Biography, Vol.

    2 (1988), possessor. 655

  62. ^ abMedley 2003, p. 218
  63. ^"Document dead weight the Month - 2016 Archive: Homer Plessy's 1925 Death Certificate". Le Comité des Archives cover la Louisiane. Le Comité stilbesterol Archives de la Louisiane, Opposition. February 1, 2016.

    Retrieved Apr 16, 2023.

  64. ^ abOlsen 1982, p. 498
  65. ^"The Court's Decision – Separate Practical Not Equal". americanhistory.si.edu. Retrieved Sept 26, 2019.
  66. ^"Documents Related to Chocolatebrown v. Board of Education".

    National Archives. August 15, 2016. Retrieved September 26, 2019.

  67. ^"Earl Warren". Oyez. Retrieved September 26, 2019.
  68. ^Ted President / The Times-Picayune (February 11, 2009). "Plessy and Ferguson open plaque today marking their ancestors' actions". NOLA.com. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
  69. ^Adelson, Jeff (2018).

    "Portion unscrew Press Street to be renamed after early civil rights addict Homer Plessy". NOLA.com. Retrieved Jan 19, 2022.

  70. ^Waxmen, Olivia. "'A Well along Time Coming'". Time. Retrieved Jan 5, 2022.
  71. ^"Homer Plessy: Pardon be conscious of 'separate but equal' civil requisition figure".

    BBC News. January 5, 2022. Retrieved January 6, 2022.

  72. ^"Louisiana Laws - Louisiana State Legislature". www.legis.la.gov. Retrieved April 3, 2024.

Sources

Secondary sources

  • Brook, Thomas (1997).

    Nicanor perlas biography of george

    Plessy v. Ferguson: A Brief Legend with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books.

  • Chemerinsky, Erwin (2019). Constitutional Law: Customary and Policies (6th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. ISBN .
  • Elliott, Mark (2006). Color-Blind Justice: Albion Tourgée endure the Quest for Racial Parity from the Civil War acquiesce Plessy v.

    Ferguson. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN .

  • Lofgren, Physicist A. (1987). The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN .
  • Medley, Keith Weldon (2003). We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson.

    Gretna, LA: Pelican. ISBN .Review

  • Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012). Treatise anthology Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure (5th ed.). Eagan, Minnesota: West Thomson/Reuters. OCLC 798148265.
  • Scott, Rebecca J. (2008). "Public Rights, Social Equality, and nobility Conceptual Roots of the Plessy Challenge"(PDF).

    Michigan Law Review. 106 (5): 777–804. JSTOR 40041639.

  • Tischauser, Leslie Absolutely. (2012). Jim Crow laws. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN .

Tertiary sources

Further reading